Counseling Methods Survey

Theories/Theorists & Terminology*

I. Theories and Theorists

(The following people are not all pure types)

A. Psychoanalytic

1. Freud, Sigmund: This man is the founder of psychoanalysis, and believed religion to be "the universal obessional neurosis of humanity." He considered sexual impulses to be a primary source of motivation for man, and that mental activity is essentially unconscious; i.e., that the unconscious is a hidden reservoir of the mind which is filled with drives and impulses which govern a person's thinking and behavior. .

2. Adler, Alfred: The first well-known dissenter from Freud's school of thought. Adler became the father of what he called "individual psychology." He shifted the motivational emphasis from biological instincts to social relationships. He believed man's primary motivation to be a "will to power." This is based upon his conception of the universal need of children to be dependent upon adults. Such dependency produces feelings of inadequacy and inferiority which each must strive to overcome. (Adler is also considered a humanist.)

3. Jung, Carl: Here is another dissenter from Freud's school who de-emphasized the role of sex in personality development. Jung also disagreed on the importance of dealing with an individual's past. He submitted that attention must be given to man's religious, aesthetic, and other such needs. Thus, in Jung we see the seeds of modern day existentialism being planted. He is also noted for his work with the concepts of introversion/extroversion and archetypes.

4. Horney, Karen: She is the first person to talk about a self-concept, and thus we can see in her approach the roots of the third force theorists. Problems are considered to stem from a "basic anxiety" that may be produced in individuals if they are not reared in an accepting environment. Therapy consists of diminishing discrepancies between one's ideal-self and self-concept.

5. Sullivan, Harry S.: The term "interpersonal anxiety" was coined by this man to express his belief that man's greatest need is for satisfactory relationships with others. But these basic relationship needs are not considered to be linked to physiological needs. Sullivan was the first to formally construct a motivational hierarchy of physiological needs.

6. Erikson, Erik: He designed what are called the eight stages of ego development. Each stage is said to be dependent upon the former. Counseling centers around identifying one's present stage of development and working toward the next.

7. Fromm, Erich: His work was grounded in Freudian psychoanalytic theory, but evolved into humanistic psychology. In his books Escape From Freedom and The Art of Loving , Fromm sets forth his idea that man fears being independent, and therefore, seeks structure for security. Fromm is a total humanist, expander of secular existentialism, and initially developed the self-love concepts adapted by today's church.

8. Berne, Eric: This man is the father of "transactional analysis." Therapy consists of analyzing and categorizing communication "bits" as expressing certain roles. The goal is the understanding of why communication fails and making appropriate adjustments. The roles (parent, adult, and child) are comparable to the psychoanalytic personality structures (super-ego, ego, and id, respectively).

9. Harris, Thomas: He is a popular transactional analyst who wrote the book I'm OK, You're OK .

B. Behavioristic

1. Watson, J. B.: As an originator of behaviorism, Watson stressed a reductionistic approach to the study of human behavior. Reacting to the use of unseen constructs to explain behavior, he opted for operationally defined constructs.

2. Skinner, B. F.: This man is most responsible for popularizing behavioristic philosophy. He authored Walden II , a book describing a utopian society based upon this approach to controlling human behavior. He firmly asserts that man can be wholly understood and controlled through the basic principles of learning (once they are discovered). Motivation is seen as a purely hedonistic matter.

3. Wolpe, Joseph: A method called "systematic desensitization" has been developed by Wolpe to deal with fear. In this approach, responses prohibitive of fear are elicited and then the previously fear producing stimulus is gradually introduced into the situation. Thus, given the same stimulus, the new response is supposedly substituted for the fear response.

4. Glasser, William: The father of "reality therapy" has been well accepted by the teaching profession and in the field of corrections. His is a hedonistic approach to directing individuals in seeking the best possible life given the powers and circumstances that exist.

5. Dobson, James: The author of Dare to Discipline presents an approach to child-rearing which is based primarily upon developing a system of immediate rewards and punishments. The admonition aspect of Ephesians 6:4 is absent and the nature of his system is extra-Biblical. He is primarily known, however, as a self-love practitioner.

C. Humanistic ("Self" Theorists)

1. Rogers, Carl: As the father of "client-centered therapy," Rogers has said that the counselor is to be "nondirective" in the sessions--his job is to reflect the counselee's responses back to him and, thus, set up a catalytic atmosphere of acceptance. Such an environment is supposed to allow the client to get in touch with the innate resources within himself for successfully dealing with life and developing self-esteem.

2. Maslow, Abraham: The term "self-actualization" has been popularized by this man. The underlying assumption is that man is basically good and has within himself all he needs to develop his full potential to be a worthwhile individual; i.e., to self-actualize. Maslow is also noted for developing a hierarchy of motivational needs, including both physiological and psychological ones. The physiological were more primary in his thinking.

3. Frankl, Viktor: He is the father of "logotherapy," an existential approach to counseling. Maladjustment is seen as an attempt to establish some meaningfulness to one's existence. We are motivated primarily by a desire for identity. Clients are urged to formally establish a personal set of spiritual and ethical values gleaned from their past experiences.

4. May, Rollo: Another existentialist, May speaks of discovering what is known as a state of "satori." This is based upon the premise that one thing is as good as another and striving is useless -- i.e., be content with what you are and what you have. He sees no need for value judgments.

5. Hiltner, Seward: This man has advocated applying non-directive techniques to pastoral counseling. He says that the pastor can best help by being an understanding and non-judgmental friend to the counselee, helping the latter "get in touch with himself."

6. Mowrer, O. Hobart: The father of "integrity therapy," Mowrer believes that the solution to man's problems lies in the group milieu. The group provides all that is necessary to handle guilt (confession and restitution on the human level only), and then to develop a sense of self-worth.

7. Perls, Fritz: This man is a the founder of "Gestalt" therapy. He believes conventional morals cut man off from freely experiencing life with his physical senses. He is rather directive in his approach to encouraging clients to get in touch with their "feelings" in the "now" and act according to them.

8. Ellis, Albert: He has developed a counseling approach called "Rational Emotive Therapy" (RET). The counselor is to be very directive in attacking certain unproductive evaluations and behaviors of the client -- the counselor tells the client what to do and how to think.